Islam Controversial literature

Criticism of Islam can take many forms, including academic critiques, political criticism, religious criticism, and personal opinions. Subjects of criticism include Islamic beliefs, practices, and doctrines. Criticism of Islam has been present since its formative stages, and early expressions of disapproval were made by Jews, Christians, and some former Muslims like Ibn al-Rawandi. Subsequently, the Muslim world itself faced criticism after the September 11 attacks. Criticism of Islam has been aimed at the life of Muhammad, the central prophet of Islam, in both his public and personal lives. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the scriptures of Islam, both the Quran, the hadiths, and his personal life (such as the child marriage with Aisha) are also discussed by critics. Criticisms of Islam have also been directed at historical practices, such as the recognition of slavery as an institution as well as Islamic imperialism impacting native cultures. More recently, Islamic beliefs regarding human origins, predestination, God's existence, and God's nature have received criticism for perceived philosophical and scientific inconsistencies. Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights in the Islamic world, particularly regarding the application of Islamic law called Sharia. As of 2025, 89 of the world's 195 countries (including non-Muslim countries) have anti-blasphemy laws, and 22 also have anti-apostasy laws. By 2017, 13 Muslim countries imposed the death penalty for apostasy or blasphemy. Muslim scholars have historically responded to criticisms through apologetics and theological defenses of Islamic doctrines. Amid the contemporary embrace of multiculturalism, there has been criticism regarding how Islam may affect the willingness or ability of Muslim immigrants to assimilate in host nations.